How to write a scientific paper

How to write a scientific paper

A scientific experiment is not complete until the results have been published and understood. A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results.

What is Scientific Writing :

The purpose of scientific writing is to communicate new scientific findings

Thus it has to be clear, simple and well ordered communication to transmit new scientific findings

Scientific writing must use proper English which gives the sense in the fewest short words

Origins of Scientific Writing :

Knowledge is lost without written records

Knowledge could not be widely circulated with no effective duplication

IMRAD Format :

I  = Introduction, what question   (problem) was studied

M = Methods, how was the problem studied

R = Results, what are the findings

A = and

D = Discussion, what do these findings mean

What is a scientific paper :

A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results.

It must be the first publication of original research results,

In a form whereby peers of the author can repeat the experiments and test the conclusions, and

In a journal or other source document readily available within the scientific community

Definition of Scientific paper :

An accepted original scientific publication containing scientific information to enable peers:

To assess observations

To repeat experiments

To evaluate intellectual processes

Must have an impact

Available to scientific community without restriction

Some important Language points:

Poor experimentation cannot be masked by brilliant writing; however, poor writing can mask brilliant experimentation

Use clear English

Always keep in mind that the paragraph is the essential unit of thought

Essential Parts of a Scientific paper :

Title: Describe concisely the core contents of the paper

Abstract: Summarize the major elements of the paper

Introduction: provide context and rationale for the study

Materials: Describe the experimental design so it is reproducible

Methods: Describe the experimental procedures

Results: Summarize the findings without interpretation

Discussion: Interpret the findings of the study

Summary: Summarize the findings

Acknowledgement: Give credit to those who helped you

References: List all scientific papers, books and websites that you cited

The Title :

A good title is defined as the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents of the paper.

The title is extremely important and must be chosen with great care as it will be read by thousands, whereas few will read the entire paper

Indexing and abstracting of the paper depends on the accuracy of the title. An improperly titled paper will get lost and will never be read.

Titles should neither be too short nor too long as to be meaningless

Waste words (studies on, investigations on, a, an, the etc) should not be used.

Syntax (word order) must be very carefully considered

It should contain the keywords that reflect the contents of the paper.

It should be meaningful and not general

It should be concise, specific and informative

It should capture the fundamental nature of the experiments and findings

How to Prepare the Title :

Make a list of the most important keywords

Think of a title that contains these words

The title could state the conclusion of the paper

The title NEVER contains abbreviations, chemical formulas, proprietary names or jargon

Think, rethink of the title before submitting the paper

Be very careful of the grammatical errors due to faulty word order

Avoid the use of the word “using”

The Abstract :

An abstract can be defined as a summary of the information in a document

It is of fundamental importance that the abstract be written clearly and simply, as it is the first and sometimes the only part of the manuscript read.

It should provide a brief summary of each of the main sections (IMRAD) of the paper:

State the principal objective and scope of the investigation

Describe the methods used

Summarize the results, and

State the principal conclusions

It is easier to write the abstract after completion of the paper

Criteria of the Abstract :

It should not exceed 250 words

It should be written in one paragraph.

It should be written in the past tense as it refers to work done.

Long words should be followed by its abbreviation which would be used through out the abstract and paper.

It should not cite any references (except in rare cases)

It should never give any information or conclusion that is not stated in the paper

Must be accurate with respect to figures quoted in the main text.

The Introduction :

The introduction should answer the following questions:

What was I studying?

Why was this an important question?

What did I know about this topic before I did this study?

What model was I testing? and

What approach did I take in this study?

Suggested rules for a good introduction:

It should present the nature and scope of the problem investigated

Review the pertinent literature

State the method of investigation

State the principal results of the investigation

State the principal conclusion(s) suggested by the results

General rules :

Use the present tense when referring to work that has already been published, but past tense when referring to your own study.

Avoid lengthy or unfocused reviews of previous research.

Cite peer-reviewed scientific literature or scholarly reviews. Avoid general reference works such as textbooks.

Define any specialized terms or abbreviations

Components of the discussion :

Try to present the principles, relationships, and generalizations shown by the Results

Point out any exceptions or any lack of correlation and define unsettled points

Show how your results and interpretations agree or contrast with previously published work

Discuss the theoretical implications of your work, and any possible practical applications.

State your conclusions as clearly as possible

Summarize your evidence for each conclusion

References :

What is referencing?

Referencing is a standardized way of acknowledging the sources of information and ideas that you have used in your document.

A list of ALL the references used in the text must be written.

Reference format varies widely:

Harvard format (the name and year system) is the most widely used

Alphabet-Number system is a modification of name and year system

Citation order system

In-text citations

In name and year system:

Citation in the text is followed by the author’s last name and year of publication between parentheses.

If they were two authors then both last names are written.

If more than two then the only first author’s name is written followed by the abbreviation et al

If a single statement requires more than one citation then the references are arranged chronologically from oldest to more recent, separated by semicolons.

If more than one reference share the same year then they are arranged alphabetically within the year.

In alphabet-number system:

Citation by number from an alphabetically arranged numbered reference list.

In Citation order system:

The references are numbered in the order they are mentioned in the text

Reference List :

Any papers not cited in the text  should not be included.

Reference lists allow readers to investigate the subject in greater depth. 

A reference list contains only the books, articles, and web pages etc that are cited in the text of the document. A bibliography includes all sources consulted for background or further reading.

In name and year system:

The reference list is arranged alphabetically by author. If an item has no author, it is cited by title, and included in the alphabetical list using the first significant word of the title.

If more than one item has the same author, list the items chronologically, starting with the earliest publication.

Each reference appears on a new line.

There is no indentation of the references

There is no numbering of the references

In alphabet-number system:

It the same as above in addition each reference is given a number

In Citation order system:

The reference list is arranged by the number given to the citation by the order that it were mentioned in the text

How to Write a Thesis :

A PhD thesis in the science is supposed to present the candidate’s original research i.e. it is a scientific paper

Unlike the scientific paper, the thesis may describe more than one topic, and it may present more than one approach to some topics.

The thesis may present all or most of the data obtained in the student’s thesis related research.

Thus it is more involved and longer than a scientific paper.

Think of a thesis as a good thriller, and write in a logical way so that a reader will find it interesting and will not be bored.

Ethics, Rights and Permissions :

Beware of originality and copyrights of others.

Do not copy anything without giving the credit to the owner by referencing it.

In some cases permissions are needed

Repetitive publication of the same data is considered plagiarism

References

Robert Day (1995): How to write and publish a scientific paper. 4^th Edition, Cambridge University Press

University of Queensland (2009) References/Bibliography Harvard Style   

http://www.library.uq.edu.au/training/citation/harvard_6.pdf